BioMastery

  RNA vs DNA: Understanding Their Structures, Differences, and Functions Life is built on the foundation of two vital molecules: RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) . While they may seem similar at first glance, they differ significantly in structure, base pairing, and function. In this blog, we'll break down everything you need to know about RNA and DNA , their key components, and their roles in the grand scheme of life. 1. Structure of RNA RNA, or Ribonucleic Acid , is essential for various biological processes, including protein synthesis. Let’s look at its defining features: Ribose Sugar : RNA contains ribose , a sugar molecule that has an oxygen atom on the 2' carbon. This makes RNA less stable than DNA. Single-Helix Structure : Unlike DNA's double-helix, RNA is typically a single-stranded molecule . Nitrogenous Bases : RNA has four nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) Uracil (U) – replaces thymine found in DNA. Key Fact : Urac...

Blood Types Overview Types : A, B, AB, and O. Rhesus Factor (Rh) : Positive (+) or Negative (-). Example: Blood types include A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, and O-. Antigens and Antibodies Antigens : Markers on the surface of red blood cells that identify the blood type. Type A: Has A antigens . Type B: Has B antigens . Type AB: Has A and B antigens . Type O: Has no antigens . Rh+: Has Rh antigen . Rh-: No Rh antigen . Antibodies : Proteins in plasma that target foreign antigens. Type A: Makes anti-B antibodies . Type B: Makes anti-A antibodies . Type AB: Makes no antibodies . Type O: Makes anti-A and anti-B antibodies . Rh-: Can produce anti-Rh antibodies if exposed to Rh+ blood. Blood Compatibility Donating Blood : Antigens are critical. The recipient’s immune system may attack donor blood if incompatible antigens are present. Example: AB+ has all antigens (A, B, Rh) and can only donate to AB+. Receiving Blood : The recipient’s plasma antibodies must not attack the donor’s antigens. ...

  Genetics and Inheritance Patterns 1. Dihybrid Cross Example: Red and Thorny Roses Traits : R (Red) is dominant to r (White). T (Thorny) is dominant to t (Not thorny). Cross : Parent 1: RRTt (Homozygous Red, Heterozygous Thorny). Parent 2: RrTt (Heterozygous Red and Thorny). Punnett Square : Generates phenotypes in a 3:1 ratio (Red thorny : Red not thorny). 2. Orange and Black Striped Tigers Traits : R (Orange coat) is dominant to r (White coat). B (Dark black stripes) is dominant to b (Muted stripes). Cross : Parent 1: RrBb (Orange coat, Dark stripes). Parent 2: rrbb (White coat, Muted stripes). Phenotypic Ratios : 1:1:1:1 ratio: Orange Black. Orange Muted. White Black. White Muted. Non-Mendelian Genetics 1. Incomplete Dominance Definition : A blending of traits occurs in heterozygous individuals. Example: RR = Red flowers. rr = White flowers. Rr = Pink flowers. Phenotype Ratio : 100% Pink (when crossing two heterozygous individuals). 2. Codominance Definition : B...

1. Genetics Basics Gene : A DNA segment encoding a trait (e.g., hair color or dimples). Alleles : Different versions of a gene. Example: "B" for black hair (dominant) and "b" for blonde hair (recessive). Genotype : The genetic composition (e.g., BB , Bb , or bb ). Phenotype : The observable trait resulting from the genotype (e.g., black or blonde hair). 2. Monohybrid Cross A cross focusing on one trait (e.g., hair color). Homozygous Dominant : BB (black hair). Heterozygous : Bb (black hair). Homozygous Recessive : bb (blonde hair). Punnett Square Example: Cross between Bb (heterozygous black hair) x Bb (heterozygous black hair): Genotype Ratios : 1:2:1 ( BB:Bb:bb ). Phenotype Ratios : 3:1 (3 black hair:1 blonde hair). Probability of Offspring with Specific Genotype: Example: Probability of BB = 1 4 \frac{1}{4}  = 25%. For 2 children both having BB : 1 4 × 1 4 = 1 16 \frac{1}{4} \times \frac{1}{4} = \frac{1}{16} ​  or 6.25%. 3. Dihybrid Cross A dihybrid cross stu...